After the decline of Kyiv in the 11th–12th centuries as the central seat of Rus’, several new power centers emerged across the former Rus’ lands. According to the chronicles of the time (which vary by era and region), the most important successor states were Vladimir-Suzdal (centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, later Moscow), Galicia-Volhynia, Novgorod, and Tver. Kyiv itself, while no longer the undisputed capital, remained an important religious and symbolic center, but gradually lost real political power—mainly due to the Mongol conquest and destruction in 1240. The Metropolitan and some elites relocated to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, continuing the Kyivan spiritual and dynastic tradition in the northeast. Other principalities, such as Smolensk, Polotsk, Chernihiv, and Ryazan, also played regional roles but wielded less influence than the main centers listed above. This shift marked the rise of Vladimir, and later Moscow, as major centers of Rus’ culture and power, while Kyiv’s spiritual significance persisted for all East Slavic lands.
Local identification—such as “people of Novgorod” (людие новгородстии), “people of Volhynia” (волыньскыи людие), “people of Suzdal” (людие суздальстии), and “people of Halych” (людие галицкии)—was common in everyday life and in chronicles. However, a broader Rus’ identity continued to be important in all these lands, especially in matters of religion, dynastic legitimacy, and historical memory, as shown in both chronicles and legal documents throughout the region.
The period of independent Rus’ principalities in the region effectively ended around 1340–1349, when Galicia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland and Volhynia came under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Before this, while most principalities—including Galicia-Volhynia—were under the suzerainty of the Mongol Golden Horde, they remained largely autonomous in culture, law, and faith. After the mid-14th century, local dynasties in Galicia were replaced by Polish elites, and Latin and Polish gradually became the official languages of administration and record-keeping—though Church Slavonic and Ruthenian (Ruska mova) continued in church and local contexts for generations. Direct continuity of local Rus’ narrative chronicles ended in Galicia at this time, although church, legal, and municipal records persisted.
A major shift occurred in the late 16th century with the Union of Brest (1596), when the majority of the local Orthodox hierarchy in Galicia entered into communion with Rome, creating the Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church. This process was driven by a combination of political encouragement from Polish authorities and voluntary acceptance by church leaders, but it also faced local resistance and resulted in periods of religious tension and division. Over the following centuries, the Greek Catholic faith became central to Galician Ruthenian (Rusyn) identity and set the region apart from Orthodox Rus’ lands to the east.
From the late 16th and especially in the 17th–18th centuries, under continued Polish and then Austrian rule, the Polish/Latin term “Ruthenian” (Ruthenus, Rusin, Rusini) became increasingly common in official documents and, over time, in everyday identity. As a result, the people of Galicia began to identify themselves as “Rusyn” (русин/русини)—a name derived from “Rus’”—while the older names “Rus’ people” (руські люди, русские люди) and “Rus’” itself persisted in church books and local usage.
The term (українець) Ukrainian appeared in the 1830s–1840s in Galicia, and by the late 19th century, influenced by the rise of modern national movements, many in Galicia began to identify as Ukrainians, especially among the educated classes and in public life. In the early 20th century, it became the standard identity in Galicia. However, the traditional identity as Rusyn (русин) persisted in rural areas and among certain communities—where it is still maintained today as a distinct minority, particularly in neighboring Carpathian regions and among diaspora groups. (Note: In modern Ukraine, Rusyns are officially considered a regional group of Ukrainians, but are recognized as a minority in some neighboring countries.)
In 1939, following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the subsequent Soviet entry into eastern Poland, Galicia (including Lviv and surrounding areas) was incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). This change was variously described at the time and later as an annexation, occupation, or, in Soviet narratives, as the “reunification” of Western Ukrainian lands with the Ukrainian SSR. Identification as Ukrainian was promoted by Soviet nationality policies, censuses, and education, particularly in the 1920s–early 1930s in Soviet Ukraine, and these processes were extended to Galicia after its incorporation into the Ukrainian SSR in 1939 and intensified after World War II.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it became part of an independent Ukraine. Today, most of the population in Galicia identifies as Ukrainian, though a Rusyn minority continues to be present in some areas.
Over the 14th and 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded to encompass most of the former Rus’ lands—including Volhynia (formerly part of Galicia-Volhynia), Kyiv, Smolensk, Polotsk, and much of present-day Belarus and northern and central Ukraine. In this vast, multi-ethnic state, the majority of the population was East Slavic and Orthodox Christian. At the same time, Lithuanian, Samogitian, and other Baltic languages and cultures played important roles in the Grand Duchy’s political and cultural life. During this period, the East Slavic language known today as ‘Chancery Ruthenian’ or, in period documents, simply ‘Rus’ language’ (руська мова, руский языкъ, lingua ruthenica) served as the official written language of state administration, law, and record-keeping. The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (notably the 1588 Statute) open with: «У Великомъ князстве Литовскомъ, Рускомъ, Жомойтскомъ и иныхъ…» (“In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus’, Samogitia, and others…”), showing the prominent status of Rus’ lands and identity.
Throughout the 14th, 15th, and into the early 16th century, the term “Rus’” (руські люди, русские люди, Русь) remained the primary means of self-identification in church, law, and daily life among the Orthodox population of these territories. The Orthodox faith was dominant until the late 16th century. The Union of Brest (1596) marked a major religious turning point, when much of the Orthodox hierarchy in the Lithuanian and Polish-ruled Rus’ lands accepted union with Rome, creating the Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church. This process was encouraged by the state and met with both acceptance and resistance, depending on the region and community, which led to a religious split between Greek Catholics (Uniates) and those who remained Orthodox.
By the later 16th century, especially after the Union of Lublin in 1569—when much of Ukrainian and Belarusian Rus’ was transferred from Lithuanian to Polish rule—Latin and Polish became increasingly dominant as official languages in administration, law, and elite culture. The term “Ruthenian” (Latin: Ruthenus; Polish: Rusin, Rusini) became standard in official and foreign documents, though local usage of “Rus’” and “Rus’ people” persisted, especially among the rural population and in the Orthodox church.
After the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), most of the former Rus’ territories under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania—including Volhynia, Kyiv, Podolia, Chernihiv, Smolensk, and much of present-day Belarus—were incorporated into the Russian Empire as provinces (губернии). Officially, their people were classified as “Russians” (русские), with regional names like “Little Russia” (Малороссия) for Ukraine and “White Russia” (Белоруссия) for Belarus in widespread use, while regional self-identification and local traditions often continued informally. Smolensk and neighboring areas were integrated directly into the Russian heartland, while distinct local languages and traditions persisted, especially in rural areas.
For much of the early modern period, local populations continued to call themselves “Rus’ people” (руські люди in Ukrainian lands, рускія людзі in Belarusian—shifting to русские люди in both regions by the late 19th century), maintaining Orthodox traditions and speaking regional dialects of the East Slavic language. It was not until the 19th century, under the influence of European national movements, that modern Ukrainian and Belarusian identities began to develop. The “Ukrainian” identity first emerged strongly among intellectuals and activists in Austrian-ruled Galicia (western Ukraine), and only gradually spread eastward into the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania—especially after the 1917 revolution.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Belarusian identity and literary language also developed, though Russian remained dominant in most cities. Following the collapse of the Russian Empire, these regions became part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republics within the USSR. Soviet language policies initially promoted local languages, but by the mid-20th century, Russian again became the main language of urban life, while Ukrainian, Belarusian, or “surzhyk” persisted in villages.
After the independence of Ukraine and Belarus in 1991, national languages and identities were revitalized and became central to public life and education. Today, the territories that were once under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania form the core of both modern Ukraine and Belarus, with layered identities shaped by centuries of shifting borders, policies, and cultural influences.
In the northeastern principalities—such as Vladimir-Suzdal (from which Moscow later emerged), Novgorod, and Tver—both local and broader Rus’ identities coexisted and are reflected in chronicles and legal documents from the 14th to 16th centuries. People often identified themselves by their city or principality—using terms like “people of Moscow” (люди Московские), “people of Vladimir,” or “people of Tver”—while a wider Rus’ identity continued to be especially important in religion, dynastic legitimacy, and historical memory. Orthodox Christianity remained the dominant faith, and church language and traditions reinforced continuity with the old Rus’ heritage.
While the ruling elite and most of the population were East Slavic and Orthodox Christian by the late medieval period, these principalities were also home to a variety of Finno-Ugric peoples, whose languages and cultures contributed to the region’s diversity. Traces of Finno-Ugric ancestry and customs persisted, especially in place names and rural communities, as these groups were gradually integrated and Slavicized from the 10th to 15th centuries. Turkic influences, mainly through the Volga Bulgars and later the Tatars of the Golden Horde, also played a role but were less prominent than in the southern and steppe regions.
The rulers of Moscow, in particular, maintained continuity with the traditions of Rus’ and ultimately reunited many of the Rus’ lands, seeing themselves as heirs to this legacy. As their realm expanded and became a more centralized empire in the 16th and 17th centuries, Moscow’s princes adopted increasingly grand titles such as “Grand Prince of all Rus’” (Великий князь всея Руси) and, later, “Tsar of all Rus’” (Царь всея Руси). The name “Russia” (Россия)—derived from the Byzantine Greek term for Rus’—gained prominence as Muscovy grew into an empire, reflecting both the deep Byzantine influence on Muscovite ideology and the evolving identity of the state. Western sources during this period often referred to the land as “Moscovia” or “Muscovy,” but within the state, the sense of historical continuity with Rus’ remained strong and largely uninterrupted.
Today, the heritage of Rus’ is claimed and honored by multiple nations—especially Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus—each of which preserves and interprets this history in ways that reflect their unique later experiences. The story of Rus’ is thus both a shared foundation and a diverse tradition, belonging to all its successor peoples.